DNA: Definition, Structure & Discovery

Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA is a molecule that contains the instructions an organism needs to develop, live and reproduce. These instructions are found inside every cell, and are passed down from parents to their children.

DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a phosphate group, a sugar group and a nitrogen base. The four types of nitrogen bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). The order of these bases is what determines DNA's instructions, or genetic code. Human DNA has around 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people, according to the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM).

DNA was first observed by a German biochemist named Frederich Miescher in 1869. But for many years, researchers did not realize the importance of this molecule. It was not until 1953 that James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin figured out the structure of DNA — a double helix — which they realized could carry biological information.

Watson, Crick and Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1962 "for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material." Franklin was not included in the award, although her work was integral to the research. [Related: Unraveling the Human Genome: 6 Molecular Milestones]

Man as a living being

1. Man’s nature is different from all other life forms, including animals. This distinction is of great importance for two reasons. First, without this distinction, government can treat humans as though animals. Second, because man does not see, or understand the difference, he can see no escape from the tyranny he suffers.

That is why the ongoing debate about the ethic of cloning is a controversial one.

2. Twins are clones – two organisms that share the same genetic material – but not all clones are twins. If the cloned organisms are born at the same time, then they’re twins.There is no known technology that can create an instant copy of a living organism. Experiments are intergenerational (относящийся к разным поколениям), meaning the clone will be younger than the original.

3. Despite (вопреки) several high-profile claims (заявление) in the past, there is no scientific evidence that anyone has successfully delivered an artificially cloned human being. Researchers can apply for a licence to clone human embryos for stem cell research. It is illegal, however, for any of those embryos to be implanted into a surrogate mother. Human-animal hybrids – In 2008, the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority approved research into ‘cytoplasmic’ hybrids, the transfer of human genetic material into a cow egg cell.

4. The man is fundamentally different from all other life forms by genus, yet within that family, is a precious and unique individual, is of fundamental importance to understanding ethics, morality, human rights, politics, the law and justice. It begs we fully understand that each individual’s relationship to others, in societal terms, not only must begin with study of the individual, it must also conclude with that satisfaction, because without individuals there is no societal aggregation. 

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What Is Biophysics?

Biophysics is the field that applies the theories and methods of physics to understand how biological systems work.

Biophysics has been critical to understanding the mechanics of how the molecules of life are made, how different parts of a cell move and function, and how complex systems in our bodies—the brain, circulation, immune system, and others— work. Biophysics is a vibrant scientific field where scientists from many fields including math, chemistry, physics, engineering, pharmacology, and materials sciences, use their skills to explore and develop new tools for understanding how biology—all life—works.

Physical scientists use mathematics to explain what happens in nature. Life scientists want to understand how biological systems work. These systems include molecules, cells, organisms, and ecosystems that are very complex. Biological research in the 21st century involves experiments that produce huge amounts of data. How can biologists even begin to understand this data or predict how these systems might work?

This is where biophysicists come in. Biophysicists are uniquely trained in the quantitative sciences of physics, math, and chemistry and they are able tackle a wide array of topics, ranging from how nerve cells communicate, to how plant cells capture light and transform it into energy, to how changes in the DNA of healthy cells can trigger their transformation into cancer cells, to so many other biological problems.

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Laboratory of Evolution

The Galápagos Islands archipelago is home to a complex ecosystem with a fascinating geological history, as well as unique examples of plant and animal life. The islands' flora and fauna inspired renowned naturalist Charles Darwin to formulate his theory of evolution, and thousands of tourists and scientists flock to the islands every year to further study the wildlife.

Credited as the father of evolution, Darwin was actually a trained geologist. Darwin had been traveling around South America for about four years before landing in the Galápagos in 1835, J. Bret Bennington, chair of the Department of Geology, Environment, and Sustainability at Hofstra University, told Live Science. During that time, Darwin became familiar with the plant and animal life that lived in various climates around the mainland as well as with some of the islands the ship visited in the Atlantic Ocean on its way to South America from England, said Bennington, who also directs a study abroad program to the Galápagos Islands.

Darwin was a creationist when he began his journey on the HMS Beagle, but he slowly changed his mind during the voyage, especially when he studied life on and around the Galápagos. Darwin saw many islands of various sizes, close together and geologically young inhabited by similar yet different species of plant and animal life. Darwin concluded that life in the Galápagos didn't make sense with the current views of creationism.

It took Darwin 23 years after returning home from his voyage to put together the jigsaw puzzle that fully supported evolution and natural selection, which is one of bases of evolution that explains why certain traits get passed on to the following generations, according to the University of California at Berkeley. Published in 1859, Darwin's famous "On the Origin of Species" took the foundations for the theories of evolution that had already been placed before him and built upon them, providing the evidence that definitively supported evolution. Within a decade of the theories' publication, according to Cornell, scientists favored Darwin's theories of evolution and natural selection over creationism, and these transformational ideas still hold today, about 160 years later.

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What Is CRISPR?

CRISPR technology is a simple yet powerful tool for editing genomes. It allows researchers to easily alter DNA sequences and modify gene function. Its many potential applications include correcting genetic defects, treating and preventing the spread of diseases and improving crops. However, its promise also raises ethical concerns.

In popular usage, "CRISPR" (pronounced "crisper") is shorthand for "CRISPR-Cas9." CRISPRs are specialized stretches of DNA. The protein Cas9 (or "CRISPR-associated") is an enzyme that acts like a pair of molecular scissors, capable of cutting strands of DNA.

CRISPR technology was adapted from the natural defense mechanisms of bacteria and archaea (the domain of single-celled microorganisms). These organisms use CRISPR-derived RNA and various Cas proteins, including Cas9, to foil attacks by viruses and other foreign bodies. They do so primarily by chopping up and destroying the DNA of a foreign invader. When these components are transferred into other, more complex, organisms, it allows for the manipulation of genes, or "editing."

Until 2017, no one really knew what this process looked like. In a paper published Nov. 10, 2017, in the journal Nature Communications, a team of researchers led by Mikihiro Shibata of Kanazawa University and Hiroshi Nishimasu of the University of Tokyo showed what it looks like when a CRISPR is in action for the very first time. [A Breathtaking New GIF Shows CRISPR Chewing Up DNA]

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History of biology

Our fascination with biology has a long history. Even early humans had to study the animals they hunted and know where to find the plants they gathered for food. The invention of agriculture was the first great advance of human civilization. Medicine has been important to us from earliest history as well. The earliest known medical texts are from China (2500 B.C.), Mesopotamia (2112 B.C.), and Egypt (1800 B.C.).

In classical times, Aristotle is often considered to be the first to practice scientific zoology. He is known to have performed extensive studies of marine life and plants. His student, Theophrastus, wrote one of the West's earliest known botanical texts in 300 B.C. on the structure, life cycle and uses of plants. The Roman physician Galen used his experience in patching up gladiators for the arena to write texts on surgical procedures in A.D. 158.

During the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci risked censure by participating in human dissection and making detailed anatomical drawings that are still considered among the most beautiful ever made. Invention of the printing press and the ability to reproduce woodcut illustrations meant that information was much easier to record and disseminate. One of the first illustrated biology books is a botanical text written by German botanist Leonhard Fuchs in 1542. Binomial classification was inaugurated by Carolus Linnaeus in 1735, using Latin names to group species according to their characteristics.

Microscopes opened up new worlds for scientists. In 1665, Robert Hooke, used a simple compound microscope to examine a thin sliver of cork. He observed that the plant tissue consisted of rectangular units that reminded him of the tiny rooms used by monks. He called these units "cells." In 1676, Anton von Leeuwenhoek published the first drawings of living single celled organisms. Theodore Schwann added the information that animal tissue is also composed of cells in 1839.

During the Victorian era, and throughout the 19th century, "Natural Science" became something of a mania. Thousands of new species were discovered and described by intrepid adventurers and by backyard botanists and entomologists alike. In 1812, Georges Cuvier described fossils and hypothesized that Earth had undergone "successive bouts of Creation and destruction" over long periods of time. On Nov. 24, 1859, Charles Darwin published "On the Origin of Species," the text that forever changed the world by showing that all living things are interrelated and that species were not separately created but arise from ancestral forms that are changed and shaped by adaptation to their environment.

While much of the world's attention was captured by biology questions at the macroscopic organism level, a quiet monk was investigating how living things pass traits from one generation to the next. Gregor Mendel is now known as the father of genetics although is papers on inheritance, published in 1866, went largely unnoticed at the time. His work was rediscovered in 1900 and further understanding of inheritance rapidly followed. 

The 20th and 21st centuries may be known to future generations as the beginning of the "Biological Revolution." Beginning with Watson and Crick explaining the structure and function of DNA in 1953, all fields of biology have expanded exponentially and touch every aspect of our lives. Medicine will be changed by development of therapies tailored to a patient's genetic blueprint or by combining biology and technology with brain-controlled prosthetics. Economies hinge on the proper management of ecological resources, balancing human needs with conservation. We may discover ways to save our oceans while using them to produce enough food to feed the nations. We may "grow" batteries from bacteria or light buildings with bioluminescent fungi. The possibilities are endless; biology is just coming into its own.

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What is Biology?

Biology is the science of life. Its name is derived from the Greek words "bios" (life) and "logos" (study). Biologists study the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution and distribution of living organisms. There are generally considered to be at least nine "umbrella" fields of biology, each of which consists of multiple subfields.

• Biochemistry: the study of the material substances that make up living things
• Botany: the study of plants, including agriculture
• Cellular biology: the study of the basic cellular units of living things
• Ecology: the study of how organisms interact with their environment
• Evolutionary biology: the study of the origins and changes in the diversity of life over time
• Genetics: the study of heredity
• Molecular biology: the study of biological molecules
• Physiology: the study of the functions of organisms and their parts
• Zoology: the study of animals, including animal behavior

Adding to the complexity of this enormous idea is the fact that these fields overlap. It is impossible to study zoology without knowing a great deal about evolution, physiology and ecology. You can't study cellular biology without knowing biochemistry and molecular biology as well.
Framework of understanding.

All the branches of biology can be unified within a framework of five basic understandings about living things. Studying the details of these five ideas provides the endless fascination of biological research:

• Cell Theory: There are three parts to cell theory — the cell is the basic unit of life, all living things are composed of cells, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
• Energy: All living things require energy, and energy flows between organisms and between organisms and the environment.
• Heredity: All living things have DNA and genetic information codes the structure and function of all cells.
• Equilibrium: All living things must maintain homeostasis, a state of balanced equilibrium between the organism and its environment.
• Evolution: This is the overall unifying concept of biology. Evolution is the change over time that is the engine of biological diversity.


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 is 

Science and Change

 If scientists are constantly trying to make new discoveries or to develop new concepts and theories, then the body of knowledge produced by science should undergo constant change. Such change is progress toward a better understanding of nature. It is achieved by constantly questioning whether our current ideas are correct. As the famous American astronomer Maria Mitchell (1818-1889) put it, "Question everything".
     The result is that theories come and go, or at least are modified through time, as old ideas are questioned and new evidence is discovered. In the words of Karl Popper, "Science is a history of corrected mistakes", and even Albert Einstein remarked of himself "That fellow Einstein . . . every year retracts what he wrote the year before". Many scientists have remarked that they would like to return to life in a few centuries to see what new knowledge and new ideas have been developed by then - and to see which of their own century's ideas have been discarded. Our ideas today should be compatible with all the evidence we have, and we hope that our ideas will survive the tests of the future. However, any look at history forces us to realize that the future is likely to provide new evidence that will lead to at least somewhat different interpretations.
     Some scientists become sufficiently ego-involved that they refuse to accept new evidence and new ideas. In that case, in the words of one pundit, "science advances funeral by funeral". However, most scientists realize that today's theories are probably the future's outmoded ideas, and the best we can hope is that our theories will survive with some tinkering and fine-tuning by future generations.
     We can go back to Copernicus to illustrate this. Most of us today, if asked on a street corner, would say that we accept Copernicus's idea that the earth moves around the sun - we would say that the heliocentric theory seems correct. However, Copernicus himself maintained that the orbits of the planets around the sun were perfectly circular. A couple of centuries later, in Newton's time, it became apparent that those orbits are ellipses. The heliocentric theory wasn't discarded; it was just modified to account for more detailed new observations. In the twentieth century, we've additionally found that the exact shapes of the ellipses aren't constant (hence the Milankovitch cycles that may have influenced the periodicity of glaciation). However, we haven't gone back to the idea of an earth-centered universe. Instead, we still accept a heliocentric theory - it's just one that's been modified through time as new data have emerged.

     The notion that scientific ideas change, and should be expected to change, is sometimes lost on the more vociferous critics of science. One good example is the Big Bang theory. Every new astronomical discovery seems to prompt someone to say "See, the Big Bang theory didn't predict that, so the whole thing must be wrong". Instead, the discovery prompts a change, usually a minor one, in the theory. However, once the astrophysicists have tinkered with the theory's details enough to account for the new discovery, the critics then say "See, the Big Bang theory has been discarded". Instead, it's just been modified to account for new data, which is exactly what we've said ought to happen through time to any scientific idea.

     Try an analogy: Imagine that your favorite fictional detective (Sherlock Holmes, Miss Marple, Nancy Drew, or whoever) is working on a difficult case in which the clues only come by fits and starts. Most detectives keep their working hypotheses to themselves until they've solved the case. However, let's assume that our detective decides this time to think out loud as the story unfolds, revealing their current prime suspect and hypothesized chronology of the crime as they go along. Now introduce a character who accompanies the detective and who, as each clue is uncovered, exclaims "See, this changes what you thought before - you must be all wrong about everything!" Our detective will think, but probably have the grace to not say, "No, the new evidence just helps me sharpen the cloudy picture I had before". The same is true in science, except that nature never breaks down in the last scene and explains how she done it. 
From science
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Why does a society devote some of its resources to developing new knowledge about the natural world?

What has motivated the scientists to devote their lives to developing the new knowledge?
     One realm of answers lies in the desire to improve people's lives. Geneticists trying to understand how certain conditions are passed from generation to generation and biologists tracing the pathways by which diseases are transmitted are clearly seeking information that may better the lives of very ordinary people. Earth scientists developing better models for the prediction of weather or for the prediction of earthquakes, landslides, and volcanic eruptions are likewise seeking knowledge that can help avoid the hardships that have plagued humanity for centuries. Any society concerned about the welfare of its people, which is at the least any democratic society, will support efforts like these to better people's lives.
     Another realm of answers lies in a society's desires for economic development. Many earth scientists devote their work to finding more efficient or more effective ways to discover or recover natural resources like petroleum and ores. Plant scientists seeking strains or species of fruiting plants for crops are ultimately working to increase the agricultural output that nutritionally and literally enriches nations. Chemists developing new chemical substances with potential technological applications and physicists developing new phenomena like superconductivity are likewise developing knowledge that may spur economic development. In a world where nations increasingly view themselves as caught up in economic competition, support of such science is nothing less than an investment in the economic future.
     Another whole realm of answers lies in humanity's increasing control over our planet and its environment. Much science is done to understand how the toxins and wastes of our society pass through our water, soil, and air, potentially to our own detriment. Much science is also done to understand how changes that we cause in our atmosphere and oceans may change the climate in which we live and that controls our sources of food and water. In a sense, such science seeks to develop the owner's manual that human beings will need as they increasingly, if unwittingly, take control of the global ecosystem and a host of local ecosystems.
   

 Lastly, societies support science because of simple curiosity and because of the satisfaction and enlightenment that come from knowledge of the world around us.  Few of us will ever derive any economic benefit from knowing that the starlight we see in a clear night sky left those stars thousands and even millions of years ago, so that we observe such light as messengers of a very distant past.  However, the awe, perspective, and perhaps even serenity derived from that knowledge is very valuable to many of us.  Likewise, few of us will derive greater physical well-being from watching a flowing stream and from reflecting on the hydrologic cycle through which that stream's water has passed, from the distant ocean to the floating clouds of our skies to the rains and storms upstream and now to the river channel at which we stand.  However, the sense of interconnectedness that comes from such knowledge enriches our understanding of our world, and of our lives, in a very valuable way.  In recognizing that the light of the sun and the water of a well are not here solely because we profit from their presence, we additionally gain an analogy from which we can recognize that the people in the world around us are not here solely to conform to our wishes and needs.  When intangible benefits like these are combined with the more tangible ones outlined above, it's no wonder that most modern societies support scientific research for the improvement of our understanding of the world around us.
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Why do science?

Scientists become famous for discovering new things that change how we think about nature, whether the discovery is a new species of dinosaur or a new way in which atoms bond. Many scientists find their greatest joy in a previously unknown fact (a discovery) that explains something problem previously not explained, or that overturns some previously accepted idea.
     

That's the answer based on noble principles, and it probably explains why many people go into science as a career. On a pragmatic level, people also do science to earn their paychecks. Professors at most universities and many colleges are expected as part of their contractual obligations of employment to do research that makes new contributions to knowledge. If they don't, they lose their jobs, or at least they get lousy raises.
     Scientists also work for corporations and are paid to generate new knowledge about how a particular chemical affects the growth of soybeans or how petroleum forms deep in the earth. These scientists get paid better, but they may work in obscurity because the knowledge they generate is kept secret by their employers for the development of new products or technologies. In fact, these folks at Megacorp do science, in that they and people within their company learn new things, but it may be years before their work becomes science in the sense of a contribution to humanity's body of knowledge beyond Megacorp's walls.
From: Why do science
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What is Science?

  Science is the concerted human effort to understand, or to understand better, the history of the natural world and how the natural world works, with observable physical evidence as the basis of that understanding. It is done through observation of natural phenomena, and/or through experimentation that tries to simulate natural processes under controlled conditions.
     Consider some examples. An ecologist observing the territorial behaviors of bluebirds and a geologist examining the distribution of fossils in an outcrop are both scientists making observations in order to find patterns in natural phenomena. They just do it outdoors and thus entertain the general public with their behavior. An astrophysicist photographing distant galaxies and a climatologist sifting data from weather balloons similarly are also scientists making observations, but in more discrete settings.
  

 The examples above are observational science, but there is also experimental science. A chemist observing the rates of one chemical reaction at a variety of temperatures and a nuclear physicist recording the results of bombardment of a particular kind of matter with neutrons are both scientists performing experiments to see what consistent patterns emerge. A biologist observing the reaction of a particular tissue to various stimulants is likewise experimenting to find patterns of behavior. These folks usually do their work in labs and wear impressive white lab coats, which seems to mean they make more money too.
     The critical commonality is that all these people are making and recording observations of nature, or of simulations of nature, in order to learn more about how nature, in the broadest sense, works.
From: science
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Ecological problems

1. Our planet is home to millions of different kinds of plant and animal species, which are linked in different ways. Together, they make up the complex world of nature. Unfortunately, co-habiting with humans brings up ecological problems. The most acute are pollution, acid rain, wildlife destruction, shortage of natural resources and global warming. These problems are interrelated as everything in the natural world depends on one another.

2. Wild plants and animals live in a particular set of surroundings, called their habitat. Nowadays people change habitats to suit their own. A lot of species - fish, reptiles, insects, birds, mammals - are disappearing fast. Many plants in the world are known to be in danger or threatened with extinction. A lot of forests are so badly damaged that they will hardly be able to recover. It’s reported that by 2030 25% of all animals, birds and insects may be extinct.

3. Acid rain falls when poisonous gases from power stations and vehicles (транспортные средства) mix with oxygen and moisture in the air. The problem could be controlled by reducing vehicle emissions and limiting the gases released from power stations.

4. World temperatures are currently rising every year. This phenomenon is called global warming. As the planet warms up, the water in the oceans will take up more space and water from glaciers (ледники ) and the polar ice caps will start to melt. This could cause sea levels to rise and many habitats will disappear under water. The cause of global warming is attributed to the greenhouse effect. It works in the following way - sunlight gives us heat which warms the atmosphere. Some of the heat returns into space. Nowadays the air surrounding the earth has become much warmer because the heat can't go back into space. 

That's why winter and summer temperatures in many places have become higher. These changes can be dangerous for our planet which needs protection. The measures to be taken include limitations for cutting rainforests and poisonous gas emissions as well as personal ecology of humans.

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Fruity Facts - About carboxylic acid

Do you remember the amazing refreshing feeling of a glass of lemonade on a hot summer's day? You may have noticed the sharp sour taste of the lemonade. This tartness is a result of carboxylic acids. This is an organic acid that is found in a variety of fruits including grapes, lemons and vinegar. 

Carboxylic acid is a form of organic acid. You can identify these acids by their structure. They all contain one carbon atom, one oxygen atom and one hydroxyl group. The combination of one carbon, one oxygen and hydroxyl group (COOH )is called a carboxyl group. It is because of this that acids derived from them are called carboxylic acids.

The combination of one carbon, one oxygen and hydroxyl group (COOH )is called a carboxyl group. Carboxylic acids are widely found in nature. You can find them as free acids like citric acid, tannic acid and malic acid. Esters the products of acids and alcohols also contain carboxylic acids. These include fats and oils, flavours of fruits and odours of flowers. Some bacteria can also cause natural reactions in which these acids are formed. Some examples include acetic acid from wine or cider, lactic acid found in sour milk and the butyric acid in rancid butter. 

CAN you now answer the questions:

What is a carboxylic acid?

Where do you find carboxylic acids?

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Physics

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/one-dimensional-motion/introduction-to-physics-tutorial/a/what-is-physics

What is physics?

To be honest, it’s really difficult to define exactly what physics is. For one, physics keeps changing as we progress and make new discoveries. New theories don't just bring new answers. They also create new questions that might not have even made sense when viewed from within the previous theory of physics. This makes physics exciting and interesting, but it also forces attempts at defining physics into generalizations about what physics has been rather than what it might be at some point in the future.

That said, definitions are useful. So, if it’s a definition you want, it’s a definition you’ll get. For the most part, physicists are trying to do the following:

1.     Precisely define the most fundamental measurable quantities in the universe (e.g., velocity, electric field, kinetic energy). The effort to find the most fundamental description of the universe is a quest that has historically always been a big part of physics, as can be seen in the comic image below. 

[What does fundamental mean?]

2.     Find relationships between those fundamental measured quantities (e.g., Newton’s Laws, conservation of energy, special relativity). These patterns and correlations are expressed using words, equations, graphs, charts, diagrams, models, and any other means that allow us to express a 

relationship in a way that we as humans can better understand and use. 

OK, so boiling physics down to only two things is admittedly a bit of a gross simplification and glosses over some of the finer points of what physicists do and how they do it. But trying to describe a complex universe with simple and useful clarifying laws is what physics is all about. So maybe trying to describe the complex activity of what physicists do with a simple and clarifying definition isn’t such a bad idea after all.

What will I learn by studying physics on Khan Academy?

In physics, we want to explain why objects move around the way they do. However, it would be hard to explain motion if we didn't know how todescribe motion. So first, in the topics One-dimensional motion and Two-dimensional motion, we'll learn how to precisely describe the motion of objects and predict their motion for some special cases.

With the ability to precisely describe motion under our belt, we'll learn inForces and Newton's Laws how the concept of force allows us to explain whyobjects change their motion.

We'll continue mastering and expanding our ability to deal with motion by showing that conservation laws are an alternative way to explain the motion of an object. These conservation laws give constraints on how the motion of a system can change. Conservation of energy will be learned in Work and energy, and conservation of momentum will be learned in Impacts and linear momentum.

Up to that point we'll have mostly considered objects that are not changing their rotational motion, so in Moments, torque, and angular momentum we'll learn how to describe and explain rotational motion and pick up a new conservation law along the way—conservation of angular momentum.

After this point, we'll deploy what we learned about motion, forces, and conservation laws to analyze how to deal with a variety of new forces and phenomena. We'll learn how to deal with liquids and gases in Fluids andThermal physics. Then in Electricity and Magnetism we'll learn about two new forces—the electric force and the magnetic force. In Circuits we'll see how electric forces cause current to flow. In Optics we'll investigate the ways in which electromagnetic waves (i.e., light) can bend and reflect. Once we learn about light, we get to learn Einstein's theory of Special relativity. And that's just to name a few.

By the end you should have a nice understanding of introductory physics and the mathematical tools physicists use to describe and explain the universe. But no summary can describe all the interesting and powerful aspects of physics. The best way to find out is to jump in and see for yoursel