Examination topics for soil - science students

1. Plant, its parts and their function. 2. The roots. 3.The stem and leaves. 4. Climatic requirements of plants. 5. Formation of soil. 6. Kinds of soil. 7. Soil temperature. 8. Carreers in Soil Science. 9. Living Things. 10. Man. 11. Helping Things to grow. 12. Red cells. 13.Do plants differ from animals. 14. Biology. 15. Pasteur. 16. Charles Darvin. 17. Gregor Mendel. 18. Joseph Miller. 19. Nikolay Vavilov. 20. Garden Hints.

Examination topics for second-year masters

Examination topics for second-year masters: 1. Biology. 2. The cell. 3. Life. Its characteristics. 4. Watson and Crick describe structure of DNA. 5. The circulation of the blood. 6. Endocrine system. 7. Skin. 8. Something about the human body. 9. Five senses. What are the senses? 10. Our Brain. 11. Vitamins. 12. Frontiers of biotechnology.

WATSON AND CRICK DESCRIВE STRUCTURE OF DNA

What is DNA? DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. This is а substance that is present in every living cell. However, each living cell thing has а different kind of DNA The kind of DNA you have in your cells gives you all the features you inherit from your parents. Iн the late nineteenth century, а German biochemist found that the nucleic acids, long-chain polymers of nucleotides, were made up of sugar, phosphoric acid, аnd several nitrogen-containing bases. Later it was found that the sugar in nucleic acid can bе ribose or deoxyri¬bose, giving two forms. RNA аnd DNA. In 1943, American Oswald А very proved that DNA carries genetic information. Не even suggested DNA might actually bе the gene. In 1948, Linus Pauling discovered that many proteins take the shape of an alpha helix, spiraled like а spring coil. In 1950, biochemist Erwin Chargaff found that the arrangement of nitrogen bases in DNA varied widely, but the amount of certain bases always occured in а one-to-one ratio. These discoveries were ап important foundation for- die later description of DNA. Iт the early 1950s, the race to discover DNA was on. At Cani- bridge: University, graduate student Francis Crick апd research fellow James Watson (Ь. 1928) had become interested, impressed especially bу Pauling's work. Meaпwhile at Кing's College in London, Maurice Wilkins (Ь. 1916) апd Rosalind Franklin 'ere also studying; DNA. The Cambridge team's approach was to make physical models to nar¬row down the possibilities апd eventually create an accurate picture of the molecule. The King's team took ап experimental approach, look¬ing particularly at x-ray diffraction images of DNA. In 1951, Watson attended а lecture bу Franklin on her work to date. She had found that DNA сап exist in two forms, depending оп the relative humidity ш the surrounding air. This had helped her de¬duce that the phosphate раrt of the outside was on the outside. Wat¬son returned to Cambridge with а rather muddy recollection of the facts Franklin had presented, though clearly critical of her lecture style and personal арреаrаnсе. Based оп this information, Watson and Crick made а failed model. It caused the head of their unit to tel1 them to stop DNA research. But the subject just kept coming up. Franklin, working mostly alone, found that her x-ray diffractions showed that the "wet" form of DNA (in the higher humidity) had all the characteristics of .а helix. She suspected that all DNA was helical but did not want to аnоnсе this finding until she had sufficient evi¬dence on the other form as well. Wilkins was frustrated. In January, 1953, he showed Franklin's results to Watson, apparently without her knowledge or coпsen1. C1•ick later admitted, "I'm afraid we always used to adopt - let's say, а patronizing attitude towards her." Watson and Crick took а crucial conceptual step, suggesting the molecule was mаdе of two chains of nucleotides, each in а helix as Frank1in had found, bot оnе going up and the other going down. Crick had just learned of Chargaff’s findings аbоut base pairs in the sum¬mer of 1952. Не added that to the mode1, so that matching base pairs interlocked in the middle of the double helix to keep the distance be¬tween the chains constant. Тhе structure so perfectly fit the experimental data that it was almost immediately accepted. DNA's discovery has been сallеd the most important biological work of the la.st 1 00 years, and the fie1d it opened may bе the scientific frontier for the next 100. Ву 1962, when Watson, Crick, аnd Wilkins won the, Nobel Prize for physiol¬ogy/medicine, Franklin has died. The Nobel Prize only goes to living recipients, and сап опlу bе shared among three winners. Was she alive, wou1d she have bееn included in the prize?

LIFE. ITS CНARACTERISTICS (магистры 1 курс)

The quantity of life an organism possess cannot bе measured, alt¬hough the average person distinguishes between the living and non living state in familiar organisms, either plants or animals. Life, there¬fore, cannot easily bе defined but is described in teams of а series of special attributes, as follows: Organization. Living matter has а characteristic type of organisation occurring in several levels. Living material is called proto¬plasm. This is not а definite chemical compound but а complex mix¬ture varying in different organisms and different parts of the same or¬ganism. Protoplasm is aggregated in structural units called cells which iп larger organisms are combined to form organs. And the whole ani¬mal plant behaves as а unit, an organism. A Metabolism. Metabolism is the sнm total to all chemical processes going on in living matter. These processes, in part, occur in а living matter: and are, therefore, characteristic. Constructive (synthetic) pro¬cesses constitute anabolism; destructive metabolism is catabolism. Growth. An excess of synthetic over destructive processes in me¬tabolism results in an increase in size. This process of growth (does not consist of the addition of material оn the surface нt of an increase in all pai1s. Reproduction. When а cell has growth to а characteristic size, it divides, forming two. In а one-celled organism this is reproduction. In а multicellular organism it is not only reproduction of cells but growth of the, whole organism. Reproduction in multicellular organism may take place asexually when only one parent is involved, or sexually when two parents are involved. In either case, offspring resempling the parent or parents is produced. Adaptation. The innate fitness of an organism for the environnment, in which it lives and thrives is called adaptation. Adaptation develops throщ;h various evolutionary mechanisms, and, it becomes permanent though inheritance. 1. Cuestions for discussion. 1) Сап we easily define, life? 2) What terms must bе used in description of life? 3) How is living material called? 4) What is protoplasm'? 5) What is protoplasm aggregated in? 6) What is the cell? 7) Why are cells iп largero rganism's combine? 8) What helps аn animal or а рlant to behave as а unit? 9) What is metabolism? 10) What is соnstructive (destructive) metabolism called? ] 11) How саn you definite growth of living organisms? 12) When is the cell ready for reproduction? 13) How many cells сап an organism have? 14) In what case may reproduction take place asexually (sexually)? 15) How сап your account tor irritabllity? 16) What does adaptation mean? П. Ask questions to each sentence given below. Тhе study of the world of life is as old as man himself. Our an-cestors were aware of' the differences between а bat and а bird and long before they had а11 inkling that there were similarities between the issues of а mushroom апd а ma11. The awarerness that aII organisms have certain common principles dates back to the cell 1heory. This theory, enunciated bу Schleiden ап Schwan in 1833, stated tl1at all living systems are composed of cells and of cell products. The cell is the common denominator of all the immense variety of living forшs. One must not forget that all cells have specialized юles over tl1e entire range of diversity in biological form and function. Пl. Translate into Englislh. Познание сущности жизни - одна из основных задач общей биологии главными закономерностями, характеризующими жизнь, являются: структурная организация, обмен веществ и энергии, репродукция, рост, раздражимость, адаптация. IV: Маkе а presentation to the text.

Lister, the founder of antiseptic surgery (2 курс)

Lister, the founder of antiseptic surgery Sir Joseph Lister (1827-1912) made а notable contribution in the field of surgery in 1867,while Lister was а professor of surgery in the University of Glasgow, he began to experiment with the use of carbolic acid in the treatment of wounds. Prior to this time there was always great danger of gangrene after operation. In the beginning he applied concentrated caroof1c acid to the wound. Gangrene did not develop, but this method was exceedingly painful and often resulted in large, ugly scars. What did he do to avoid, these results? Не saturated silk gauze with the acid applied the gauze to the wound а method that proved far more successful. Lister next directed attention to materials that used, when he stitched the wounds. Later he began to use catgut which he treated with sulfur and chromium as the most reliable material. Did he do anything else? Yes, he did. In 1869 Lister turned his at¬tention to the destruction of harmful bacteria in the air: Before he per¬formed an operation he sprayed the atmosphere with а week solution of carbolic acid. Then he began to sterilize everything he used in the operation itself. Нis next step, therefore, was to develop а technique for пsing antiseptic on the hands, dressings, sponges, bandages, und surgical instruments. And now modern medicine still uses Lister' s antiseptic method in surgery.

V. Translate the following sentences into English using the active words: 1. Мы вышли из лесу и увидели большое пшеничное поле. 2. В какой области биологии он работает? 3. Ветер отломил большую ветвь у яблони, которая растет в углу сада. 4. В Новосибирске есть филиал Академии Наук. 5. В этом месте железная дорога разветвляется в трех направлениях. 6. Кто первый отметил кар- боловую кислоту при обработке ран? 7. Новое средство нашло свое применение для лечения сердечных болезней. 8. Этот врач руководил всем хирургическим отделением больницы. 9. Это растение растет только, если оно получает прямой солнечный свет. 10. Мы пошли в направлении высокого здания, которое показалось вдали. 11. В первое утро, когда мы приехали на дачу, мы рано встали, оделись, быстро позавтракали и пошли в лес. 12. Листер обрабатывал карболовой кислотой не только раны, но и пропитывал ею весь перевязочный материал. 13. В результате сложной операции и правильного лечения ребенок выздоровел. 14. Вы не знаете, каковы результаты его беседы с директором? 15. Выветривание (weathering) приводит к разрушению горных пород.

Living Things

Уou аге familiar with many kinds of life. Trees, bees, birds, fishes, hares аге alive. All living things аrе either plants or animals. Is there аnу place оп earth where there аге по living things? No, there is not. Even in а desert there is some plant and all animal life. The hare and the horse аrе mammals. The hаге is а small wild animal. The horse is а big domestic animal. There аге no wild horses now. Some anima1s are гаге now. There are very few kangaroos left on earth, for example. Most mammals must about to live, and they have legs to do this. How many legs have mammals? In gеnеrаl they have four legs for moving about. Birds are living things that f1y. They have two feet for running and two wings tor flying. Biгds have neither а mouth nоr а nose that mammals have, they have а beak instead. Fishes live in wa¬ter and have fins for swimming. Is the bее а biгd? No, it is not, it is an insect. Plants have no legs at all for moving аbout. With all these differences all living things аге basically alike. All their bodies have basic unit called cells, and each cell has the basic living matter called protoplasm. And there аге the same kinds of chemica1 elements in the protoplasm of different cells. Answer the following questions: 1. What are all living things? 2. Is the hare а domestic animal? 3. What animal is the hare? 4. What domestic animal do уоu know? 5. Have birds two or fоur feet? 6. What have birds for flying? 7. How many legs have most of mammals? 8. Are trees animals? 9. Are there many kangaroos left on the earth now? 10. Why are all living things basically alike? 11. What is the basic living matter? 12. What basic units have thе bodies of all living things?

Joseph Lister

JOSEPH LISTER 1827-1912 Joseph Lister, known as Sir Joseph Lister, was а British surgeon and а pioneer of antiseptic surgery, who promoted the idea of sterile surgery while working at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary. Lister successfully introduced carbolic acid (now known as рhеnol) to sterilize surgical instruments and to clean wounds, which led to а reduction in post-operative infections and made surgery safer for patients. Joseph Lister was born in Upton, Essex, England, on April 5, 1827. Не was the second of three children born to prosperous Quaker, Joseph Jackson Lister, а very successful wine merchant and amateur scientist, and а pioneer of achromatic object lenses for the compound microscope. As а teenager Joseph attended Quaker schools in Hertfordshire and London, studying mathematics, natural science, and languages. Following matriculation, he obtained а Bachelor of Arts degree at the University of London in 1847. Shortly after this he contracted small¬pox. When he had fully recovered, he returned to the University of London as а medical student, qualifying as а doctor in 1850. Lister graduated with honors bу obtaining Bachelor's degrees in Medicine and Surgery. In 1853, Lister went to Edinburgh, Scotland, to spend four weeks with Professor James Syme, who was considered to be the greatest teacher of surgery at that time. Three years later, Lister married Syme's daughter Agnes who became а great assistance to her husband helping him with experiments. In the Edinburgh Hospital where Lister worked, almost half of the surgery patients died from infection. Surgeons regretted this high death rate, but they thought, nothing could bе done about these infec¬tions, because they arose spontaneously inside the wound. Lister however, was not convinced of the inevitability of infection (which was also kпown as sepsis). Не began to search for а way of preventing in¬fection. In 1860 Lister bеcаmе Professor of Surgery at Glasgow. There, а friend lent him some research papers bу the outstanding French chem¬ist, Louis Pasteur. Pasteur suggested three methods to eliminate the faulty micro-organisms: filtration, exposure to heat, or exposure to chemical solutions. As the first two methods were not suitable for usе with human flesh, Lister needed to find а suitable chemical to kill the germs. Не learned that carbolic acid was being used as an effective disinfectant in sewers and could safely bе used on human tissue. Beginning in 1865, Lister used carbolic acid to wash his hands, his instruments, and the bandages used in the operation. Lister also sprayed the air with carbolic acid to kill airborne germs. As the germ theory of disease became more widely accepted, it was realized that infection could bе better avoided bу preventing bacteria from getting into wounds in the first place. This led to the rise of sterile surgery. Some consider Lister "the father of modern antisepsis". Moreover, he showed that suitably sterilized materials could bе left inside the patient. In 1877, he tied broken bones together with sterilized silver wire which was left inside the patient. In 1880, he in¬troduced the usе of sterilized catgut for internal stitches, as this would subsequently dissolve. (Previously, silk thread used in internal stitch¬ing was left hanging out of the wound and was pulled out later, often causing further damage). Lister also introduced the use of rubber drainage tubes after first using one on Queen Victoria. (For many years he had been surgeon to the Quееn). In 1897, Queen Victoria honored Lister with the title Lord Lister. Не was first to bе made а British peer for services to medicine . Lister had retired in 1893 after а long and outstanding career. Не died on February 10, 1912, at Walmer, Kent, England. Although the materials and procedures used have changed over the years, the antiseptic principle itself remains today as the cornerstone of modern surgery. 3. Agree or disagree. Explain why. 2. Joseph Lister was а pioneer of plastic surgery. 3. Lister's father was а prosperous scientist, famous for achromatic object lenses for the compound microscope. 4. Lister couldn't graduate from the University of London because of smallpox he had contracted. 5. In 1853 Joseph Lister married Agnes Syme who was his friend's sister. 6. While working in the Edinburgh Hospital, Lister started search¬ing for а way of preventing sepsis. 7. Louis Pasteur’s only оnе method could bе used with human tis¬sue. 8. Lister applied carbolic acid to sterilize instruments used in the operation. 9. Lister used silk thread for internal stitching in the operation. 1О. Queen Victoria mаdе Joseph Lister а British рееr for contribution to medicine. 11. Lister died in 1893 after а long and outstanding career. 4. Match the words from the bох to the definitions. There is а word in the bох you shouldn't use. matriculation smallpox carbolic acid drainage tube sepsis catgut surgeon bandage infirmary 1) а doctor who is specially trained to perform surgery - ... ; 2) а serious infectious disease that causes spots which leave deep marks on the skin - ... ; 3) а hospital оr а place in а large institution for the care of those who are ill …; 4) а former school examination in Britain, which was superseded (заменен) bу the General Certificate of Secondary Education - ... , 5) the presence of pus-forming bacteria in the body, typically through infection of а wound -- ... ; 6) another name for phenol , especially when it is used as an antiseptic or disinfectant agent -- ... ; 7) а strong sterilized cord made from the dried intestines (кишки) of sheep or horses (but not cats) that is used as surgical ligatures (перевязочное средство) -... ; 8) а tube, usually of clear flexible plastic, with lateral perforations (боковые отверстия), for draining (высушивание) а wound, ab¬scess - ... 5. Read the following passage and answer the questions. What did Pasteur mean by saying that life arose from life? What results did Lister соте to on the basis of Pasteur's discoveries? Lister as the son of а wine merchant as Pasteur was too familiar with the problem of wine going bad because of fermentation. Pasteur had shown that the problem was caused bу germs which entered from the air, and that organisms did nоt соmе to life spontaneously from non-living matter within the wine. Pasteur had demonstrated that life arose from life. Lister immediately recognized the truth and usefulness of Pasteur's work. If germs entering from the air inside the wound caused infection, then those germs could bе killed and infection prevented. 1. to return to the University . . . а medical student; 2. to graduated ... honors; 3. to obtain Bachelor's degrees ...Surgery; 4. to help husband… experiments; 5. be familiar … the problem of wine going bad; 6. problem caused … germs; 7. patients died … infection; 8. to search ... а way of preventing infection 9. exposure … chemical solutions; 10. thread left hanging ... of the wound; 11. bе surgeon ... the Queen; 12. to mаkе а рееr for services ... Medicine. 7. What are the English equivalents for the following Russian words? А. 1) накладывать швы, зашивать; 2) первооткрыватель антисептиче¬ской хирургии; 3) королевская больница/лазарет в Глазго; 4) стерилизовать хирургические инструменты; 5) родиться в семье преуспевающего квакера и успешного виноторговца; 6) ахроматические бесцветные линзы; 7) подхватить оспу; 8) окончить университет с отличием; 9) возникать самопроизвольно внутри раны; 1О) неизбежность, неминуемость инфекции; 11) искать способ, чтобы предотвратить инфекцию; 12) дать взаймы/одолжить кому-либо научные труды. B. 1) близко знакомый с…/хорошо знать что-либо (кого-либо); 2) признать точность и пользу пастеровской работы; 3) микробы, проникающие из воздуха в рану; 4) подвергать воздействию химического раствора; 5) дезинфицирующее средство для коллекторов/сточных труб; 6) уничтожать микробы, переносимые воздушно-капельным путем; 7) ввести использование стерильного кетгута для внутренних швов (при хирургических операциях); 8) вызвать последующие повреждения; 9) использовать резиновую дренажную трубку; 10) удостоить титулом лорда; 11) уйти в отставку; 12) остаться основой/краеугольным камнем современной хирургии. 8. Make а presentation of topic "Joseph Lister a pioneer of antiseptic surgery" bу using the following items. 1. Joseph Lister's early life before 1853. 2. Joseph Lister' s moving to Edinburgh, Scotland. 3. Pasteur' s discovery in Lister' s experiments. 4. Lister's new surgical methods with antiseptic principles. 5. Lister as а surgeon to the Queen Victoria.

Louis Pasteur 1822- 1895

LOUIS PASTEUR 1822-1895 Louis Pasteur was а French chemist and microbiologist who was оnе of the most important founders of medical microbiology. His discoveries reduced mortality from puerperal fever, and he created the first vaccines for rabies and anthrax. His experiments supported the germ theory of disease. Не was best known to the general public for inventing а method called “pasteurization” , а method by which harmful microbes in perishable food products like milk or wine are destroyed using heat, without destroying the food. Louis Pasteur was born on December 27, 1822, in Dole, France, into the family of а poor tanner. Louis Pasteur was an average student in his early years, but in 1840 he earned his Bachelor of Arts degree and Bachelor of Science degree (1842) at the Ecole Normale Superi¬eure (Teachers Training Institute). In 1848, he became professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg, where he met and courted Marie Laurent, daughter of the university's rector. In 1849 they were married and had five children, оnlу two of whom survived tо adulthood; the other three died of typhoid. These personal tragedies inspired Pasteur to try to find cures for diseases such as typhoid. Today, Pasteur is often regarded as the father of germ theory and bacteriology, together with Robert Koch. Pasteur's first research demonstrated that fermentation is caused bу the growth of' micro- organisms, апd the growth of bacteria in nutrient broths is nоt due to spontaneous generation, but rather to biogenesis. • Pasteur's research also showed the growth of micro-organisms was responsible for spoiling beverages, such as beer, wine and milk. In 1862 Pasteur invented а process in which liquids such as milk were heated tо 50-6О0С to kill most bacteria and moulds already present within them. This process was soon afterwards known as pasteurization. Pasteur's later work on diseases included work on chicken cholera. During this work, а culture of the re¬sponsible bacteria had spoiled and failed to induce the disease in some chickens he was infecting with the disease. Upоn reusing these healthy chickens, Pasteur discovered he could not infect them, even with fresh bacteria; the weakened bacteria had caused the chickens to become immune to the disease, though they had caused only mild symptoms. In the 1870s, he applied this immunization method to anthrax, which affected cattle, and aroused interest in combating other diseas¬es. Pasteur publicly claimed he had made the anthrax vaccine bу ex¬posing the bacilli to oxygen. This discovery revolutionized work in infectious diseases, and Pasteur gave these artificially weakened diseases the generic name of ''vaccines". Pasteur рrоduсеd the first vaccine for rabies bу growing the virus in rabbits, and then weakening it bу drying the affected nerve tissue. This vaccine was first used on 9-year o1d Joseph Meister, on July 6, 1885, after the boy was badly mauled bу а rabid dog. This was donе at some personal risk for Pasteur, since he was not а licensed physi¬cian and could have faced prosecution for treating the boy. Meister did not contract the disease, аnd Pasteur was hailed as а hero. In 1868 (at the age of 46 years) Pasteur had а hemorrhage in а brain. Не became an invalid: left-hand and leg were inactive. Не al¬most died, but eventually recovered. Moreover, he made the most significant discoveries: anthrax vaccine and vaccination against rabies. When the scientist died, it turned out that а huge part of his brain had bееn destroyed. Pasteur died from uremia. For the great contributions to science, Pasteur was awarded 200 orders of almost all countries of the world. 4. Read the text once and answer the questions. 1. Was Louis Pasteur born in Paris? 2. Who was Pasteur's father? 3. Did Pasteur get any biological and medical education? 4. When а student at the University of Strasbourg, Pasteur met Marie Laurent, his future wife, didn’t he? 5. What tragedy having occurred in Pasteur's family inspired him to search cures for some infectious diseases? 6. Is fermentation caused bу spontaneous generation of а micro-organism or bу а living organism originated from another or¬ganism similar to itself? 7. What perishable beverages do you know? How to pasteurize them? 8. What is the main idea of the immunization method invented bу Pasteur? 9. What is "vaccine" bу Pasteur? What did Pasteur do to produce the first vaccine for rabies? 10. Who was the first human being tested on with the vaccine for rabies? What was the result of the experience? 11. What made Pasteur an invalid? 12. What was the reason of Pasteur's death? 5. Guess the disease or ailment bу its definition. 1. а serious form of blооd poisoning caused bу infection contracted during childbirth - ... ; 2. а serious disease which causes people and animals, particularly dogs, to go mad and die. It is characterized bу excessive saliva¬tion (слюноотделение), aversion to water, convulsions, and pa¬ralysis - ... ; 3. аn often fatal disease of cattle and sheep, characterized bу fever and swelling (оттек) of the throat, typically affecting the skin аnd lungs. It can bе transmitted to humans, causing severe skin u1ceration (язва) or а form of pneumonia - ... ; 4. а serious infectious bacterial disease that produces fever and di¬arrhea ([daiə'riə)] диарея) with an eruption ( высыпание~) of red spots оn the chest апd abdomen and саn cause death. It is spread bу dirty water or food -- ... ; 5. а condition in which а person bleeds too much аnd cannot stop the flow of blood- ... ; , 6. аn infectious disease of fowls (домашние птицы)- ... 6. Read the text again and give the English equivalents for the words below. 1) Микробная теория болезни; 2) снизить смертность от по-слеродового сепсиса (ро-дильная горячка); 3) скоропортящиеся продукты; 4) размножение бактерий в питательной среде; 5) процесс брожения; 6) не удалось вызвать болезнь у птиц; 7) быть зараженным птичьей холерой; 8) стать невосприимчивым к болезни; 9) сибирская язва, поражающая скот; 10) вызвать интерес в борьбе с другими заболеваниями, 11) создать вакцину против сибирской язвы; 12) открытие, совершившее переворот; 13) инфекционные заболевания; 14) вакцина от бешенства; 15) высушивание пораженных нервных тканей; 16) быть сильно покалеченным бешеной собакой; 17) предстать перед обвинением; 18) приветствовать, как героя; 19) кровоизлияние в мозг; 20) оказалось, что ... 5. а) Read extra information about Pasteur. А. Pasteur was gifted in drawing and раinting. His pastels аnd portraits of his parents and friends, madе when he was 15, were later kept in the museum of the Pasteur Institute in Paris. В. While Pasteur was not the first to propose gеrm theory (Girolamo Fracastoro, Agostino Bassi, Friedrich Henle and others had suggested it earlier), he developed it and conducted experiments that clearly indicated its correctness and managed to convince most of Europe it was true. С. Beverage contamination led Pasteur to the idea that micro¬organisms infecting animals and humans cause disease. Не proposed preventing the entry of micro-organisms into the human body, lead¬ing Joseph Lister to develop antiseptic methods in surgery. D. Pasteur also discovered anaerobiosis, whereby some micro¬organisms саn develop and live without air or охуgen, called the Pasteur Effect. Е. The rabies vaccine was initially created bу Emile Rоuх, а French doctor and a colleague of Pasteur who had been working with а killed vaccine produced bу desiccating the spinal cords of infected rabbits. The vaccine had bееn tested only on 11 dogs before: its first human trial. b) Questions 1. What was Pasteur interested in when he was 15? 2. What were Girolamo Fracastoro, Agostino Bassi, and Friedrich Henle famous for? 3. How did Pasteur develop germ theory proposed bу other scien- tists? 4. What was the main point of the Pasteur's Effect? 5. Who was the first who created the rabies vaccine? 1. Tell about Pasteur's life and work accord¬ing to the dates given below. 1. On December 27, 1822 ... 2. From 1840 to 1842 Pasteur ... 3. In 1848, Pasteur became ... 4. In 1849, he ... 5. In 1862, Pasteur invented ... 6. In 1868, he… 7. In the 1870s, he… 8. On July 6, 1885… 9. In 1895… 7. Speak on the following. 1. Pasteur's early life апd family. 2. The process of pasteurization invented by Pasteur. 3. Pasteur's revolutionized discovery in infectious disease. 4. Last days of Pasteur's life.

Education in Great Britain

Education in Great Britain England schooling is compulsory for children of 5 to 16 years of age. Any child may attend a school without paying fees. Over 90% of children of compulsory school age go to state schools. The most important changes in Britain’s educational system were introduced under the Education Reform Act 1988. It led to the compulsory National Curriculum for pupils aged 5 to 16 in state schools. The Act also aims to give parents a wider choice of schools for their children. Local educational authorities finance most school education at local level. They also employ teachers. Every state school in England and Wales has a governing body, responsible for the school’s main policies. Parallel reforms are introduced in both Scotland and Northern Ireland. Full-time education is compulsory up to the middle teenage years. There are three stages in education. The first stage is primary education; the second is secondary education; the third is further education at university or college. Before going to a primary school children receive nursery education (some children attend pre-school play-groups). It’s the first age of education. Around half of 3—4 years old in Britain receive nursery education. Children of nursery age need care as well as education. Social, emotional and physical needs must be taken into consideration. Compulsory primary education begins at the age of 5 in England, Wales and Scotland and at 4 in Northern Ireland. Children start their education in an infant school and move to a junior school at 7 years old. Primary schools vary in size and location. Pupils study different subjects (English, mathematics, science, history, geography, music, art, physical education). Over 80% of all primary schools are mixed. In Britain most children of compulsory secondary school age (11—16) receive free education financed from public funds. The large majority of schools are mixed. The school year in England and Wales begins in September and continues into July. In Scotland it is from August to June. In Northern Ireland — from September to June. At this level children start to learn a modern foreign language. The course of study at secondary school may lead to General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) qualifications. At 16 years old children take different examinations and have quite a lot of coursework, only after which they’re awarded GCSE. Those who stay at school after GCSE, study for 2 more years for A (Advanced) level exams in two or three subjects. A small proportion of children (about 8%) attend private, or independent schools, which are not financed by the state. To understand this phenomenon a little history is needed. The British government paid little attention to education until the end of the 19th century. Schools had existed in Britain long before the government took an interest in education. A small group of schools admitted only the sons of the upper and upper middle classes. At these public schools much more attention was paid to «character-building» and the development of «team spirit» rather than to academic achievements. These were «boarding- schools» (as the pupils lived in them). The pupils wore distinctive clothes and the schools had their own traditions. The aim of those schools was to prepare young men to take up positions in the higher ranks of army, in business, civil service and politics. A typical public school is for boys from 13. It admits fee-paying pupils. Such school is a boarding one. Each school is divided into houses with its housemaster. Public school place great emphasis on team sports. These schools are not at all luxurious or comfortable. A typical example of such a school is Eton. British education has many different faces but one goal. Its aim is to realize the potential of all for the good of the individual and society as a whole. The School Year The school year is usually divided into three terms. Autumn term lasts from September (or August) till Christmas holiday, which is about 2 weeks. Then spring term — till Easter holiday (also 2 weeks), and summer term, which lasts till June (or July). Summer holiday is about 6 weeks. In addition all schools have a half-term, which lasts a few days or a week in the middle of each term. School Life Nearly all schools work five days a week. They are closed on Saturdays and Sundays. The school day starts at 9 o’clock and finishes between 3 and 4p.m. The lunch break usually lasts an hour-and-a-quarter. Most pupils have lunch provided by the school. The lunch is paid by parents. Other children either go home for lunch or have a snack at school. Exams At 15—16 years old school children take public exams. They are not usually set up by the government (rather by independent examining boards). Each school or Local Education Authority decides which exams their pupils are to take. The boards publish syllabus for each subject. There is no single school-leaving exam or school-leaving certificate. Usually a vast range of subjects is offered for school children. Nearly all pupils do exam in English, Maths and Science. Most do exams in technology and in a foreign language. Some pupils take exams in 3—4 additional subjects. Usually exams have nothing to do with school years. Once the examining boards decided to include certain popular television programmes on their literature syllabus. EXERCISES I. Answer the questions. 1. What is the goal of education in Britain? 2. What types of school do you know in Britain? 3. What school do children at 6 years attend? 4. What exams do children have to take at 16 years old? 5. What subjects do pupils learn at secondary school? 6. Is there any difference between state and independent schools? 7. What is the aim of private schools? 8. Can you give an example of a private school? 9. Is schooling compulsory for pupils of 17 years old? 10. When does the academic year begin? II. True or false? 1. Schooling is compulsory for children of 5 to 16 years of age. 2. Quite a large number of children attend public schools. 3. The first stage of education is secondary education. 4. Children in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland go to school at the same age. 5. Only a small part of schools are mixed. 6. At public schools much attention is paid to character-building. 7. After finishing secondary school children are awarded GCSE. III. Explain the meaning of the following words and expressions. 1. private education — 2. compulsory education — 3. mixed schools — 4. boarding schools — 5. GCSE — 6. academic year — 7. nursery education — Education in Great Britain (continued) At the age of 16 pupils can leave school. But quite a lot of them want to continue their education. Only 1/3 of all leave school at 16 and look for a job. (The general level of unemployed is high today. Some of them find job immediately and many take part in training schemes (which means job combined with part-time college courses). In England and Wales those who stay at school study just three subjects in preparation for taking A-level exams (Advanced Level). These academic exams are set by the same examining boards that set GCSE exams. They’re taken by pupils at the age of 18 years old, who wish to continue their education. Universities usually select students on the basis of A-level results and an interview (students who wish to enter Oxford and Cambridge have to take certain exams). Those who have better A-level results are usually accepted. Higher education has become more available in the second half of the 20th century. In 1960 there were less than 25 universities in Britain. By 1980 there were already more than 40, and by 1995 there were over a hundred institutions with university status. Universities take the better students, that’s why nearly all students complete their studies. The normal course of study lasts 3—4 years. Students are not supposed to take a job during the term. Unless their parents are rich, they receive a state grant, which covers most of their expenses, including the cost of accommodation. Quite a lot of students live on campus (or in college) or in rooms nearby. However, nowadays the government reduces the amount of the students and encourages a system of top-up loans. That’s why quite a lot of students can’t afford to live in college and many more of them are forced to do a part-time job, but this reduces the traditionally high quality of British university education. And, in addition, the number of students from low-income families has been greatly reduced. There are no great distinctions between different types of universities in Britain. But still there are some categories of them. First of all, Oxbridge. Oxford and Cambridge were founded in the medieval period. These Universities consist of semi-independent colleges, each of them having its own staff («Fellows»). The «Fellows» teach the college students either one-to one or in very small groups. This system is unique in the world and known as tutorials in Oxford and supervisions in Cambridge. Then, Scotish universities. By 1600 Scot-land had 4 universities — Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen and St. Andrews. St. Andrews resembles Oxbridge very much. In the other three most of the students live at home or find their rooms in town. The process of study at these universities is very close to the continental one. There is less specialization than at Oxbridge. During the 19th century various institutions of higher education (usually technical ones) were founded in the industrial towns and cities such as Birmingham, Manchester and Leeds. Their buildings were of local brick, so they got the name «redbrick» universities. They contrasted chiefly with Oxford and Cambridge. At first, they prepared students for London University degrees, but later they were given the right to award their own degrees. They became universities themselves. Now they accept students from all over the country. These universities are financed by local authority. One of the developments in education in Britain is certainly the Open University. It was founded in 1971. Some people don’t have an opportunity to study full-time, and this university allows them to study for degree. The university’s courses are taught through television, radio and course books. Its students work individually and with tutors, to whom they send their papers. The students discuss their work at meetings or through correspondence. In summer they attend short courses. EXERCISES I. Answer the questions. 1. Do pupils at 16 prefer to continue their education or to find job? 2. How many subjects are studied by pupils in preparation for taking A-level exams? 3. When do pupils take their A-level exams? 4. How do universities select students? 5. Why do all students usually complete their studies? 6. Why has the high quality of British university education been reduced recently? 7. When was the Open University founded? II. Explain the meaning of the following words and expressions. 1. training schemes — 2. on campus — 3. a part-time job — 4. low-income families — 5. staff — 6. «redbrick» universities — III. Fill in the gaps. 1. At the age of . . . pupils can leave school. 2. Only … of all pupils leave school and look for a job. 3. Those who stay at school study . . . subjects. 4. A-level exams are taken at . . . years old. 5. Universities select students on the basis of exams. 6. By 1986 there were more than . . . universities in Britain. 7. The course of study at universities lasts . . . years. 8. The government encourages a system of . . . loans. 9. Oxford and Cambridge were founded in the . . . period. 10. The unique system of education in Britain is known as … at Oxford and … at Cambridge. 11. One of the developments in education in Britain is ….

London.

London London is the capital of Great Britain, its political, economic and commercial centre. It’s the main port of Great Britain. It is one of the greatest cities of the world. Its population is about 9 million people. The city was founded by Romans in the 1st century AD and it was called Londinium. The English are very proud of the long history of their capital. The city became very rich in the 16th century. Then in 1665 and 1666 two catastrophes occurred: epidemic of plague which killed 100,000 citizens, and the Great Fire which destroyed the City. London is a real museum of architecture. Traditionally London is divided into: the City, the West End, Westminster and the East End. The City is the heart of London, its financial and business centre. Few people live in this part of London but over a million come here to work. There are a lot of famous ancient buildings in the City, for example St.Paul’s Cathedral. Westminster is one of the most famous historic areas in London as it contains both the seat of Government (the Houses of Parliament) and the crowning place of kings and queens (Westminster Abbey). The West End is the centre of London. There are historical palaces, museums, beautiful parks, large department stores, hotels, restaurants, theatres and concert halls in this part of London. One of the most beautiful palaces is Buckingham Palace, the official residence of the Queen. The oldest of all the royal residences in London is the Tower of London. The broad Mall leads from Buckingham Palace to Trafalgar Square. If you go to the east of the City, you’ll find yourself in the East End. This is an industrial part of London. The Port of London is also in the East End. Tasks 1. Translate into English Коммерческий центр, главный порт, был основан, стал очень богатым, эпидемия чумы, разделен, сердце Лондона, мало людей, старинные здания, содержит, официальная резиденция королевы. 2. Your friend, who has never been to London, wants to learn more about it. Answer his/her questions. 1. What is the population of London? 2. Who founded London? 3. What was the first name of London? 4. What catastrophes occurred in the 17th century? 5. What parts is London divided into? 6. Where is St.Paul’s Cathedral situated? 7. What is the official residence of the Queen? 8. What sights of interest is London famous for? 9. What is the oldest royal residence in London? 3. Finish the sentence… 1. London is the main port of … 2. It was founded by … 3. The Great Fire destroyed … 4. London is divided into … 5. There are a lot of … in the City. 4. Ask questions to the given answers. 1. 9 million people 2. Londinium 3. in the 16th century 4. the seat of Government 5. Buckingham Palace 5. Speak about London